Current Drug Abuse Reviews
ISSN: 1874-4737 - Volume 1, 2008
Current Drug Abuse Reviews
Volume 1, Number 1, January 2008
Contents
Editorial Pp. 1-2
Putative Role of Brain Acetaldehyde in Ethanol Addiction
Pp. 3-8
Xin-sheng Deng and Richard A. Deitrich
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
Associative Learning, the Hippocampus, and Nicotine
Addiction Pp. 9-19
Jennifer A. Davis and Thomas J. Gould
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
Incorporating Coping into an Expectancy Framework
for Explaining Drinking Behaviour Pp. 20-35
Penelope A. Hasking and Tian P.S. Oei
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
The Impact of Excessive Alcohol Use on Prospective
Memory: A Brief Review Pp. 36-41
Thomas M. Heffernan
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
Are Some Drinkers Resistant to Hangover? A Literature
Review Pp. 42-46
Jonathan Howland, Damaris J. Rohsenow and Erika M. Edwards
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
Alterations in Homocysteine Metabolism Among Alcohol
Dependent Patients – Clinical, Pathobiochemical and
Genetic Aspects Pp. 47-55
Ulrich C. Lutz
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
Alcohol Abuse, Immunosuppression, and Pulmonary Infection
Pp. 56-67
Ping Zhang, Gregory J. Bagby, Kyle I. Happel, Caroline
E. Raasch and Steve Nelson
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
Neurobiological and Psychosocial Processes Associated
with Depressive and Substance-Related Disorders in Adolescents
Pp. 68-80
Uma Rao and Li-Ann Chen
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
The Chronic Effects of Cannabis on Memory in Humans:
A Review Pp. 81-98
Nadia Solowij and Robert Battisti
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
The Influence of Marijuana Use on Neurocognitive Functioning
in Adolescents Pp. 99-111
Alecia D. Schweinsburg, Sandra A. Brown and Susan F. Tapert
[Abstract] [Full
Text Article]
Abstracts
[Back to top]
Editorial: Current Drug Abuse – Time to be Reviewed
Literature that makes note of addiction and drug abuse goes
back to ancient times. Alcohol was used in Egypt since the
time of the Pharaohs [1] and ancient Greeks were already experienced
with alcohol abuse and alcoholism [2, 3]. Ancient Greeks were
also familiar with cannabis, and myths talk about nepenthes:
a mysterious drug against any type of pain [4]. Throughout
history, the use and abuse of alcohol and drugs has been playing
a role in society.
In 1929, one of the first scientific papers in the field of
addiction was published in the January issue of Science
[5]. The paper revealed that a Committee on Drug Addiction
was appointed in the USA to study the increasing problems
related to drug addiction. Their most important goal was to
substitute all existing addictive medicinal drugs such as
morphine and cocaine by non-addictive alternatives with an
equal clinical efficacy. To this extend the Universities of
Virginia and Michigan took a leading role in developing and
testing a series of new chemical compounds that should replace
the addictive drugs.
Although the aims of the Committee were very ambitious, and
cocaine has been largely banned from the medical profession,
a search of the scientific literature reveals only few articles
on addiction. In fact, until the end of the 1980s research
on addiction resulted in about 100 scientific papers yearly
or less, focusing primarily on treatment and prevention. As
is evident from Fig. 1, during the 1990s addiction research
expanded rapidly.
Fig. (1).
Until the 1990s, articles on addiction and drug abuse were
scattered among the scientific literature. Thereafter the
number of Universities and institutes involved in addiction
research grew significantly, and currently there are about
30 international peer-reviewed journals devoted to drug abuse
and addiction. The number of review papers and meta-analyses
increased as well during the last decade.
To summarize the accumulative number of research papers that
is currently emerging, the Journal Current Drug Abuse
Reviews aims to publish the highest quality reviews and
meta-analyses on all latest advances on alcohol and drug abuse
and addiction. The Journal has a multidisciplinary scope and
covers all the latest and outstanding developments in neurobiology,
neuropsychopharmacology, addiction, behavioral effects, prevention,
and treatment strategies on abuse of alcohol and both illicit
and prescription drugs. The goal of the Journal is to be a
reference source for anyone who wants a systematic overview
of the available scientific evidence on topics related to
drug abuse and addiction.
This inaugural issue comprises a number of superb reviews
that are all related to three main topics: alcohol, learning
and memory, and adolescence. I will highlight some of these
reviews, because they address topics that have been somewhat
overlooked by researchers over the last decades. For example,
one review discusses the fact that some drinkers never report
having an alcohol hangover, whereas this would be expected
after a session of heavy drinking. The alcohol hangover is
an exciting yet puzzling phenomenon since it remains to be
elucidated why these symptoms are present after alcohol
and it metabolites (e.g., acetaldehyde) are eliminated from
the body. Unlike alcohol intoxication, the pathology of alcohol
hangover has received very little scientific attention and
studies that have been performed often yield inconclusive
results [6]. The lack of scientific interest in the intriguing
issue of alcohol hangovers is remarkable, since almost every
drinker is familiar with the unpleasant hangover effects that
may arise the day after an evening of excessive drinking,
and the ways these symptoms may affect performance of (or
even participation in) planned activities the day after drinking.
The debate on alcohol hangovers will continue until research
provides us with a clear view of its pathology. Simple explanations
as if hangover is equivalent to dehydration or caused by the
presence of acetaldehyde have proven to be insufficient to
explain the general feeling of misery the day after excessive
drinking. Hence, although experienced by many drinkers, it
is still unknown what causes the alcohol hangover, a fact
that is illustrated by the lack of effective hangover cures
[7]. Until the pathology of hangovers is elucidated, the reasons
why some drinkers never experience alcohol hangovers
will probably remain a mystery.
Smoking and drinking remain popular among youth as is experimenting
with other drugs. Adolescent drug abuse is a major problem
as it may have serious consequences for themselves and those
in their environment. These negative effects are not limited
to short-term effects but may last much longer. For example,
the adolescent brain is still in development and this process
may be affected by drug use. This inaugural issue of Current
Drug Abuse Reviews presents a review of the impact of
adolescent cannabis use on brain functioning. Adolescents
demonstrate persisting deficits related to heavy cannabis
use for at least six weeks following discontinuation, particularly
in the domains of learning and memory and working memory.
The effects of chronic cannabis use on memory functioning
are discussed in another review. Learning and remembering
are psychological abilities that can be compromised by the
use of alcohol and drugs. An important aspect of everyday
remembering is prospective memory, which refers to the cognitive
ability of remembering to carry out an intended action at
some future point in time. Although it is obviously an important
ability, researchers have paid little attention to prospective
memory in their research. The inaugural issue of Current
Drug Abuse Reviews comprises a concise review on the
impact of excessive alcohol use on prospective memory.
Finally, I want to acknowledge that Current Drug Abuse
Reviews would not have been established without the help
of many people. First of all I would like to thank my Associate
Editors – Patricia Conrod, Leslie Jacobsen, Sherry Stewart,
and Maree Teesson – for their invaluable support in
getting the Journal started. I am also very grateful for the
members of our excellent International Editorial Advisory
Board who helped a great deal with reviewing submissions and
proposing welcome ideas to improve Current Drug Abuse
Reviews. Finally, I would like to thank Mahvish Yousuf
and Matthew Honan from Bentham Science Publishers for their
support and believe that Current Drug Abuse Reviews
is an important resource for anybody working in the field
of or interested in drug abuse and addiction.
REFERENCES
[1] El-Guebaly N, El-Guebaly A. Alcohol abuse in ancient Egypt.
The recorded evidence. Int J Addict 1981, 16: 1207-1221.
[2] Leibowitz JO. Acute alcoholism in Greek and Roman Medicine.
Br J Addict 1957, 62: 83-86.
[3] Rolleston JD. Alcoholism in classical antiquity. British
Journal of Inebriation 1927, 24: 101-120.
[4] Arata L. Nepethes and cannabis in ancient Greece. Janus
Head 2004, 7: 34-49.
[5] White C. Committee on Drug Addiction of the National Research
Council. Special correspondence. Science 1931, 73 (1882):
97-98.
[6] Verster JC, Van Duin D, Volkerts ER, Schreuder AHCML,
Verbaten MN. Alcohol hangover effects on memory functioning
and vigilance performance after an evening of binge drinking.
Neuropsychopharmacology 2003, 28: 740-746.
[7] Pittler MH, Verster JC, Ernst E. Interventions for preventing
or treating alcohol hangover: systematic review of randomized
trials. Br Med J 2005, 331:1515-1518.
Joris C. Verster
(Editor-in-Chief)
Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS)
Section Psychopharmacology (W038A)
Faculty of Science
University of Utrecht
P.O. Box 80082
3508 TB Utrecht
The Netherlands
E-mail: J.C.Verster@uu.nl
[Back to top]
Putative Role of Brain Acetaldehyde in Ethanol Addiction
Xin-sheng Deng and Richard A. Deitrich
[Full Text Article]
The putative contribution of brain acetaldehyde (AcH) to ethanol
(EtOH) tolerance and dependence (addiction) is reviewed. Although
the role of AcH in EtOH addiction has been controversial,
there are data showing a relationship. AcH can be formed in
the brain tissues through the peroxidatic activity of catalase
and by oxidation via other oxidizing enzymes such
as cytochrome P-4502E1. Significant formation of AcH occurs
in vitro in brain tissue at concentrations of EtOH
that can be achieved by voluntary consumption of EtOH by rodents.
AcH itself possesses reinforcing properties, which suggests
that some of the behavioral pharmacological effects attributed
to EtOH may be a result of the formation of AcH, and supports
the involvement of AcH in EtOH addiction. Modulation of aldehyde
dehydrogenase (ALDH) and brain catalase activity can change
EtOH-related addictive behaviors presumably by changing AcH
levels. Moreover, some condensation reaction products of AcH
may promote some actions of EtOH and its consumption. On the
basis of the findings, it can be concluded that AcH may mediate
some of the CNS actions of EtOH including tolerance and dependence,
although further exploration the involvement of AcH in EtOH
addiction is warranted.
[Back to top]
Associative Learning, the Hippocampus, and Nicotine
Addiction
Jennifer A. Davis and Thomas J. Gould
[Full Text Article]
The abuse liability of nicotine is comparable to or greater
than that of a variety of addictive substances. However, the
reinforcing and/or rewarding properties of addictive substances
other than nicotine far outweigh the reinforcing and/or rewarding
effects associated with nicotine use. These data suggest that,
in addition to the intrinsic reinforcing effects of nicotine,
other factors may contribute to nicotine addiction. One such
factor is associative learning, or rather, the ability of
nicotine to alter learning and memory processes that may underlie
addiction. The present paper presents an overview of the role
of learning in nicotine addiction. In addition, recent advances
in the identification of behavioral processes, neural substrates,
and cellular and molecular substrates that underlie nicotine-associated
alterations in learning are reviewed. Particular attention
has been paid to research that describes the role of the hippocampus
and hippocampus-dependent learning processes in nicotine addiction.
[Back to top]
Incorporating Coping into an Expectancy Framework
for Explaining Drinking Behaviour
Penelope A. Hasking and Tian P.S. Oei
[Full Text Article]
Expectancy Theory has offered much in the way of understanding
alcohol use and abuse, and has contributed greatly to prevention
and treatment initiatives. However although many cognitive-behavioural
treatment approaches are based on expectancy constructs, such
as outcome expectancies and self-efficacy, high relapse rates
imply that expectancy theory may be too narrow in scope, and
that additional variables need to be examined if a comprehensive
understanding of drinking behaviour, and better treatment
outcomes, are to be achieved. We suggest that the coping strategies
an individual employs present one such set of variables that
have largely been neglected from an expectancy framework.
Although coping skills training is routinely used in prevention
and treatment of alcohol problems, coping research has suffered
from a poor theoretical framework. In this paper we review
the existing research relating expectancies, self-efficacy
and coping to drinking behaviour and propose a model which
explains both social and dependent drinking, by incorporating
coping into an expectancy theory framework. We also outline
research and clinical implications of the proposed model.
[Back to top]
The Impact of Excessive Alcohol Use on Prospective
Memory: A Brief Review
Thomas M. Heffernan
[Full Text Article]
Research into the cognitive consequences of chronic excessive
alcohol use continues to grow. Despite this, little research
has investigated what impact excessive alcohol use might have
upon everyday remembering. An important aspect of everyday
remembering is prospective memory (PM), which refers to the
cognitive ability of remembering to carry out an intended
action at some future point in time. The majority of the studies
which have focused on what impact excessive alcohol use has
upon PM in teenagers and young adults have consistently found
that the excessive drinkers reported more lapses in their
short term (e.g., forgetting to lock one’s door upon
leaving home) and long term (e.g., forgetting to post a letter
on time) aspects of everyday PM, when compared to low-dose
alcohol users or non-users. It is concluded from this review
that PM deficits should be added to the growing list of neuropsychological
sequelae associated with excessive alcohol use. The magnitude
of the effects of alcohol on PM depends upon the amount of
alcohol consumed and how long one has been drinking. Major
limitations of these studies include their reliance upon the
use of self-report measures of PM, the issue of polydrug use
complicating the picture, the need to control for the co-morbidity
of other conditions - such as depression, and better drug-screening
methods. Therefore, further studies need to employ objective
measures alongside self-report measures of PM, incorporate
better controls for the use of other drugs and mood states,
as well as extending the focus of the research to study what
effect different patterns of alcohol use might have upon PM,
e.g., what impact binge drinking has upon everyday PM. These
findings have educational and applied relevance within the
alcohol field.
[Back to top]
Are Some Drinkers Resistant to Hangover? A Literature
Review
Jonathan Howland, Damaris J. Rohsenow and Erika M. Edwards
[Full Text Article]
To assess the incidence of hangover we: (1) reviewed the experimental
and survey literature; (2) performed secondary analyses on
two large population surveys; and (3) calculated the incidence
of hangover among young adults participating in several randomized
trials we conducted on the aftereffects of heavy drinking.
Survey data included adults admitted for alcohol detoxification,
community adults who ever got “tipsy” or “high”,
adolescents in high school who ever drank heavily, adults
who drank heavily in the past 12 months, and university students.
Most of the experimental trials brought participants to intoxication.
The consistency of findings across study designs, populations,
and referenced time period suggests that around 23% of the
population may be resistant to hangover. Since propensity
for hangover may affect drinking patterns, further research
on the consequences and predictors of hangover insensitivity
is warranted.
[Back to top]
Alterations in Homocysteine Metabolism Among Alcohol
Dependent Patients – Clinical, Pathobiochemical and
Genetic Aspects
Ulrich C. Lutz
[Full Text Article]
Addiction research focusing on homocysteine metabolism and
its association with aspects of alcohol dependence has revealed
important findings. Recent literature on this topic has been
taken into account for the review provided.
Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) is a key enzyme
in the homocysteine metabolism. Plasma homocysteine levels
are influenced by the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
MTHFR C677T. Besides genetic factors, environmental factors
have an impact on homocysteine plasma levels too. Thus, chronic
alcohol intake is associated with elevated homocysteine plasma
concentrations. Elevation of plasma homocysteine concentration
is considered as a predictor for the occurrence of alcohol
withdrawal seizures and – as homocysteine is a cardiovascular
risk factor – might contribute to the higher risk for
myocardial infarction among alcohol dependent patients.
Homocysteine acts as an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor
agonist and has excitotoxic effects. Furthermore, it has been
demonstrated that homocysteine has neurotoxic effects especially
on dopaminergic neurons. As the rewarding effects of alcohol
are mediated by the dopaminergic system, a homocysteine-dependent
impairment of the reward system possi-bly leads to an altered
drinking behaviour according to the deficit hypothesis of
addiction. Homocysteine is involved in the metabolism of methyl
groups and DNA-methylation plays a role in regulation of gene
expression. Therefore it has been suggested that homocysteine
is an important epigenetic factor. It remains to be determined
whether alcohol dependent patients benefit from homocysteine
lowering strategies, e.g., via supplementation of
folate, vitamin B6 and B12. In this respect it is not clear
yet, if a supplementation therapy can reduce the risk for
the occurrence of alcohol withdrawal seizures.
[Back to top]
Alcohol Abuse, Immunosuppression, and Pulmonary Infection
Ping Zhang, Gregory J. Bagby, Kyle I. Happel, Caroline
E. Raasch and Steve Nelson
[Full Text Article]
Excessive alcohol consumption predisposes the host to a wide
range of infectious complications, particularly pulmonary
infections. Factors that contribute to the development of
pulmonary infections in alcohol-abusing patients include dysfunction
of the protective barriers in the respiratory tract, aspiration
of oropharyngeal contents, nutritional deficiencies, liver
disease, and impairment of host defense mechanisms. This review
discusses the complex host-pathogen interactions in the airways
with an emphasis on how alcohol consumption adversely affects
these mechanisms and predisposes the host to infections. Potential
immunomodulatory strategies for enhancing host defense function
in alcohol-consuming patients are also discussed.
[Back to top]
Neurobiological and Psychosocial Processes Associated
with Depressive and Substance-Related Disorders in Adolescents
Uma Rao and Li-Ann Chen
[Full Text Article]
Adolescents are at heightened risk for the development of
both depressive and substance-related disorders. These two
disorders frequently co-occur in adolescents and are associated
with significant morbidity and mortality. Given the substantial
economic and psychosocial burden associated with the comorbid
condition, the identification of causal mechanisms associated
with their co-occurrence is of great public health importance.
Although there is significant under-standing of the environmental
and neurobiological factors involved in depression and addictive
disorders considered separately, the mechanisms underlying
the comorbid illness have not been investigated carefully.
The purpose of this review is to summarize the extant literature
on genetic, environmental and neurobiological processes involved
in the etiology of de-pressive and substance-related disorders
in adolescents and adults. It is important to note that the
data on common neuro-biological systems that link addictive
and depressive disorders are primarily from research with
adult animals and humans. Given the ongoing maturation of
these systems throughout adolescence and early adult life,
it is not clear how these neurobiological processes influence
the development and progression of both disorders. A better
understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms leading
to the onset and course of these disorders during adolescence
will be helpful in developing more effective preventive and
treatment strategies not only for this population but also
for adult patients with early-onset illness.
[Back to top]
The Chronic Effects of Cannabis on Memory in Humans:
A Review
Nadia Solowij and Robert Battisti
[Full Text Article]
Memory problems are frequently associated with cannabis use,
in both the short- and long-term. To date, reviews on the
long-term cognitive sequelae of cannabis use have examined
a broad range of cognitive functions, with none specifically
focused on memory. Consequently, this review sought to examine
the literature specific to memory function in cannabis users
in the unintoxicated state with the aim of identifying the
existence and nature of memory impairment in cannabis users
and appraising potentially related mediators or moderators.
Literature searches were conducted to extract well-controlled
studies that investigated memory function in cannabis users
outside of the acute intoxication period, with a focus on
reviewing studies published within the past 10 years. Most
recent studies have examined working memory and verbal episodic
memory and cumulatively, the evidence suggests impaired encoding,
storage, manipulation and retrieval mechanisms in long-term
or heavy cannabis users. These impairments are not dissimilar
to those associated with acute intoxication and have been
related to the duration, frequency, dose and age of onset
of cannabis use. We consider the impact of not only specific
parameters of cannabis use in the manifestation of memory
dysfunction, but also such factors as age, neurodevelopmental
stage, IQ, gender, various vulnerabilities and other substance-use
interactions, in the context of neural efficiency and compensatory
mechanisms. The precise nature of memory deficits in cannabis
users, their neural substrates and manifestation requires
much further exploration through a variety of behavioural,
functional brain imaging, prospective and genetic studies.
[Back to top]
The Influence of Marijuana Use on Neurocognitive Functioning
in Adolescents
Alecia D. Schweinsburg, Sandra A. Brown and Susan F. Tapert
[Full Text Article]
Marijuana use is common in adolescence, yet neural consequences
have not been well delineated. This review seeks to ascertain
whether heavy marijuana use in adolescence is associated with
persistent neurocognitive abnormalities, and whether adolescents
are more vulnerable to the impact of chronic marijuana use
than adults.
Among heavy marijuana using adults, neurocognitive deficits
are apparent for several days following use, but may disappear
after one month of abstinence. Studies of adolescent heavy
users have identified impairments in learning and work-ing
memory up to six weeks after cessation, suggesting persisting
effects, yet raise the possibility that abnormalities may
remit with a longer duration of abstinence.
Given ongoing neuromaturation during youth, adolescents may
be more vulnerable to potential consequences of marijuana
use than adults. This is supported by rodent models, which
show greater memory impairments in animals exposed to cannabinoids
as adolescents relative to those exposed as adults. Further,
adult humans who initiated use in early adoles-cence show
greater dysfunction than those who began use later. Together,
these results suggest that adolescents are more vulnerable
than adults to neurocognitive abnormalities associated with
chronic heavy marijuana use; however, the impact of preexisting
risk factors is unknown.
Adolescents demonstrate persisting deficits related to heavy
marijuana use for at least six weeks following discontinuation,
particularly in the domains of learning, memory, and working
memory. Further, adolescents appear more adversely affected
by heavy use than adults. Longitudinal studies will help ascertain
whether preexisting differences contribute to these abnormalities.
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